Final Exam of Leadership

Final Exam Leadership
Topics Review
1.      What should the leader’s action be toward the out-group?
Those that were based on the formal employment contract (defined roles), which were called the out-group. Subordinates in the out-group are less compatible with the leader and usually just come to work, do their job, and go home.
Negotiations involve exchanges in which subordinates do certain activities that go beyond their formal job descriptions, and the leader, in turn, does more for these subordinates.

2.      What does the leader need to do before relinquishing control?
To share power really means to give up control — or, to be more precise, to let go of an illusion of control.
Giving up control is a measured, and measurable, activity. When you do it correctly, you make it possible to get more done while reducing the risk of people not doing their part.
It is need to do is establish two aspects of power-sharing that allow you to do so safely and effectively. One is empowering employees to make decisions and delegating responsibility to them. If you don't give people the authority to do things, they won't be able to do them.
The other is delegation. You actually have to extend responsibility outward to team members so that you don't become the final bottleneck on everything the team tries to do. As team leader, you're still ultimately responsible. But you extend responsibility to others, deputizing them so they take over something on your behalf while still responsible to you.

3.      Describe the effects that the Expectancy Theory has on attitude of the followers.
The principles of expectancy theory suggest that subordinates will be motivated if they feel competent and trust that their efforts will get results.

4.      When Achievement-oriented leadership does works the best?
Achievement-oriented leadership is effective for challenging tasks.

5.      List the goals and steps an ethical leader will undertake.
·         Steps:
Applying ethics to leadership and management, Velasquez has suggested that managers should develop virtues such as:



·         Perseverance,
·         public-spiritedness,
·         integrity,
·         truthfulness,
·         fidelity,
·         benevolence,
·         And humility.




6. Power always corrupt. Yes or Not? Power corrupts, and absolute power corrupts absolutely.  However, it is not power that corrupts but fear. Fear of losing power corrupts those who wield it and fear of the scourge of power corrupts those who are subject to it.
7.  Should a leader be 100% truthful 100% of the time?
Look, if you're 100% honest, you're going to hurt people. Needlessly.
For leaders in organizations, being honest means, “Do not promise what you can’t deliver, do not misrepresent, do not hide behind spin-doctored evasions, do not suppress obligations, do not evade accountability, do not accept that the ‘survival of the fittest’ pressures of business release any of us from the responsibility to respect another’s dignity and humanity” (p. 164).
8. Which perspective contends that the leader is responsible for effectiveness?
Two critical functions of team effectiveness are listed: perfor­mance (task accomplishment) and development (maintenance of team).
9. List the reason why Team Leadership is difficult to execute.
Many teams have failed because they exist in a traditional authority structure that does not promote upward communication or decision making at lower levels. Teams will have great difficulty in organizational cultures that are not sup­portive of collaborative work and decision making. Changing the organi­zational culture to one that is more supportive of teams is possible, but it takes time and effort (Levi, 2011).
The best goals, team members, and commitment will not mean much if you have no money, equipment, or supplies for accomplishing the goals.
To make matters worse, many teams have shared or distributed leader­ship necessitating that everyone who provides team leadership has a wide range of team-oriented skills.
10. Does the team leadership theory postulates that only the leader can perform critical leadership functions?
This model does not focus on the position power of a leader but instead focuses on the critical functions of leadership as diagnosis and action taking. Any team member can perform the critical leadership functions to assess the current effec­tiveness of the team and then take appropriate action.
11. What is the main focus of transactional analysis?
The important aspect of that title is the notion of a social psychiatry, one that focuses not only on the individ­ual, but also on one’s relationship to others.
The primary focus of transactional analysis is to empower people with the ability to achieve psychological well-being.
Although TA has not been applied directly to leadership, some of the basic ideas are interesting and can elucidate leader and follower interac­tions. The most basic concept is that of the ego state, which Berne (1964) defined as “a coherent system of feelings and operationally as a set of coherent behavior patterns” (p. 23). This concept is an effort to link feel­ings and experiences with how people actually behave.
There are three ego states in TA: parent, adult, and child.
12. A subordinate who acts in a dependent manner expects the leader to act?
Crossed transactions represent major problems in leader–follower interactions. If a leader initiates an exchange in the adult ego state, describing a situation that requires some action, and the follower responds in the child ego state by asking what could possibly be done, the leader must switch to the parent ego state and help the child by providing guidance and counseling.

13. What reaction a Parent-child comments from a leader causes in a subordinate?
A leader who is in his adult ego state dealing with a subordinate who responds from his free child ego state so that the response is somewhat negative, rejecting the input from the leader.
14.  Is there a difference, according to research, in the social skills of male and female leaders?
Gender differences in leadership styles, and that women’s leadership is more effective in contemporary society (Book, 2000; Helgesen, 1990; Rosener, 1995). However, academic researchers have a greater diversity in their views; indeed, many argue that gender has little or no relationship to leadership style and effectiveness (Dobbins & Platz, 1986; van Engen, Leeden, & Willemsen, 2001; Powell, 1990).
Some findings indicate that women’s greater use of democratic style appears to be adaptive in that they are using the style that produces the most favorable evaluations.
There were gender differences such that women and men were more effective in leadership roles that were congruent with their gender (Eagly, Karau, & Makhijani, 1995). Thus, women were less effec­tive to the extent that the leader role was masculinized.
15. Is there a difference, according to research, in the negotiating ability of male and female leaders?
People must negotiate with others to access the right positions, experiences, opportuni­ties, resources, and assistance in both the professional and domestic spheres. Not only are women less likely to negotiate than men are (Small, Gelfand, Babcock, & Gettman, 2007), the negotiations needed to ascend the leadership hierarchy often are unstructured, ambiguous, and rife with gender triggers—exactly the type of situation that particularly disadvan­tages women (Bowles & McGinn, 2005). Moreover, women face greater social costs for initiating negotiation than men do, so their lower levels of negotiation may represent an adaptive response to social disincentives (Bowles, Babcock, & Lai, 2007).
In sum, women are no less effective at leadership, committed to their jobs, or motivated for leadership roles than men. However, women are less likely to self-promote and negotiate than men. Furthermore, research shows a few small sex differences in traits associated with effective leader­ship, although these differences equally advantage women and men.
16. What is the result in an evaluation, when both male and female leaders use autocratic, directive leadership style?
A large-scale meta-analysis of the literature on evaluations of female and male leaders was assessed who were equated on all characteristics and leadership behaviors (Eagly, Makhijani, & Klonsky, 1992). These studies revealed that women were devalued compared with men when they led in a mas­culine manner (autocratic or directive; e.g., Bartol & Butterfield, 1976), when they occupied a typically masculine leadership role (e.g., athletic coaches or managers in manufacturing plants; see Knight & Saal, 1984), and when the evaluators were men. These findings indicate that women’s greater use of democratic style appears to be adaptive in that they are using the style that produces the most favorable evaluations.
17. How does ethnocentrism affect leadership?
Ethnocentrism is the tendency for individuals to place their own group (ethnic, racial, or cultural) at the center of their observations of others and the world.
Ethnocentrism can be a major obstacle to effective leadership because it prevents people from fully understanding or respecting the viewpoints of others. For example, if one person’s culture values individual achievement, it may be difficult for that person to understand another person whose cul­ture emphasizes collectivity (i.e., people working together as a whole).
18. What orientation does prejudice has?
Prejudice is a largely fixed attitude, belief, or emotion held by an individual about another individual or group that is based on faulty or unsubstantiated data. It refers to judg­ments about others based on previous decisions or experiences.
One of the main problems with prejudice is that it is self-oriented rather than other-oriented. It helps us to achieve balance for ourselves at the expense of others.
19. What are the main characteristics of a servant leader?
The 10 characteristics of the servant-leader have since been defined (supported here by quotes from his original essay):
1.      Listening: “… true listening builds strength in other people”
2.      Empathy: “Men grow taller when those who lead them empathize, and when they are accepted for who they are…”
3.      Healing: “… the motive for healing is the same: for one’s own healing”
4.      Awareness: “The cultivation of awareness gives one the basis for detachment, the ability to stand aside and see oneself in perspective in the context of one’s own experience, amid the ever present dangers, threats and alarms”
5.      Persuasion: “Leadership by persuasion has the virtue of change by convincement rather than coercion”
6.      Conceptualization: “Passionately communicating the worth of people and their strength to raise themselves”
7.      Foresight: “Foresight it the ‘lead’ that leaders have”
8.      Stewardship: “The real enemy is fuzzy thinking on the part of good, intelligent, vital people, and their failure to lead, and to follow servants as leaders”
9.      Commitment to growth of people: ”An institution starts on a course towards people-building with leadership that has a firmly established context of people first”
10.  Building community: “The first order of business is to build a group of people who, under the influence of the institution, grow taller and become healthier, stronger, more autonomous.”
20.  How long did the concern for ethical behavior of leader began?

There have been many studies on business ethics in general since the early 1970s, but these studies have been only tangentially related to leadership ethics.
There is a high demand for moral leadership in our society today. Beginning with the Nixon administration in the 1970s and con­tinuing through George W. Bush’s administration in the last decade, people have been insisting on higher levels of moral responsibility from their leaders.
21. What are the methods to demonstrate empathy?
Empathetic servant leaders demonstrate that they truly understand what followers are thinking and feeling. When a servant leader shows empathy, it is confirm­ing and validating for the follower. It makes the follower feel unique
22. Explain the type of relationship a leader has, under the LMX, with the subordinates.
Leaders and subordinates relate to each other within prescribed organizational roles. They have lower-quality exchanges, similar to those of out-group members discussed earlier in the chapter. The subordinate com­plies with the formal leader, who has hierarchical status for the purpose of achieving the economic rewards the leader controls. The motives of the subordinate during the stranger phase are directed toward self-interest rather than toward the good of the group (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995).
The LMX focuses on the two-way relationship (dyadic relationships) between supervisors and subordinates. The theory assumes that leaders develop an exchange with each of their subordinates, and that the quality of these leader-member exchange (LMX) relationships influences subordinates' responsibility, decision influence, access to resources and performance
23. What desire do followers have when they want to know if they are in or out?
The erotic personality is one in which people seek to love and be loved. They want to know about the backgrounds of the people with whom they work and even try to delve into personal matters. How­ever, people with an erotic personality are also quite dependent and needy.
Within an organizational work unit, subordinates become a part of the in-group or the out-group based on how well they work with the leader and how well the leader works with them.
Subordinates who are interested in negotiating with the leader what they are willing to do for the group can become a part of the in-group. These negotiations involve exchanges in which subordinates do certain activities that go beyond their formal job descriptions, and the leader, in turn, does more for these subordinates. If subordinates are not interested in taking on new and different job responsibilities, they become a part of the out-group. Whereas in-group members do extra things for the leader and the leader does the same for them, subordinates in the out-group are less compatible with the leader and usually just come to work, do their job, and go home.
Once team members have been classified, even subconsciously, as In-Group or Out-Group, that classification affects how their managers relate to them from then on, and it can become self-fulfilling.

For instance, In-Group team members are often seen as rising stars and the manager trusts them to work and perform at a high level. This is also the group that the manager talks to most, offering support and advice, and they're given the best opportunities to test their skills and grow. So, of course, they're more likely to develop in their roles.

This also holds true for the Out-Group. The manager spends little, if any, time trying to support and develop this group. They receive few challenging assignments or opportunities for training and advancement. And, because they're never tested, they have little chance to change the manager's opinion.

24. Describes the steps leaders need to take under the Path-Goal theory when obstacles are present.
Path–goal theory suggests that it is important for leaders to provide coaching, guidance, and direction for subordinates, to help subordinates define and clarify goals, and to help subordinates around obstacles as they attempt to reach their goals. In effect, this approach treats leadership as a one-way event: The leader affects the sub­ordinate.
25. List the factors of motivation under the Expectancy Theory.
The principles of expectancy theory suggest that subordinates will be motivated if they feel competent and trust that their efforts will get results,
Path–goal theory forces us continu­ally to ask questions such as these about subordinate motivation:
·         How can I motivate subordinates to feel that they have the ability to do the work?
·         How can I help them feel that if they successfully do their work, they will be rewarded?
·         What can I do to improve the payoffs that subordinates expect from their work?
Path–goal theory is designed to keep these kinds of ques­tions, which address issues of motivation, at the forefront of the leader’s mind.
26. What kind of leadership is necessary to obtain low involvement?
The path–goal theory is very leader oriented and fails to recognize the transactional nature of leadership. It does not promote subordinate involvement in the leadership process.
27. Who is credited with the phrase “the end justify the means?”

It was  Niccolò Machiavelli

 Scholars often note that Machiavelli glorifies instrumentality in statebuilding—an approach embodied by the saying that "the ends justify the means." Violence may be necessary for the successful stabilization of power and introduction of new legal institutions.


28. What is the quality of a leader that goes about accomplishing the goals?
External Support and Recognition. A supportive organizational context includes material resources, rewards for excellent performance, an educa­tional system to develop necessary team skills, and an information system to provide data needed to accomplish the task (Wageman et al., 2009).
29. What are the two primary decisions a leader must make under the team leadership theory?
Two critical functions of team effectiveness are listed: perfor­mance (task accomplishment) and development (maintenance of team).
Team performance is the “quality of decision making, the ability to implement decisions, the outcomes of teamwork in terms of problems solved and work completed, and finally the quality of institutional leader­ship provided by the team” (Nadler, 1998, p. 24).
Team development is the cohesiveness of the team and the ability of group members to satisfy their own needs while working effectively with other team members (Nadler, 1998).
30. What has lost importance in followership in recent years according to Maccoby?
The narcissistic personality, the theme of Maccoby’s book on visionary leaders, receives no guidance, as do the other three types. Maccoby stressed the need to clearly set the narcissist apart from egotistical or egoistic people. The narcissist is not vain and does not attempt to impress, but takes pride in and will talk about actual accomplishments. In fact, Maccoby pointed out that one of the important characteristics of the narcissist is humor, which is most often self-directed. On the positive side, the narcissist has a clear vision of what to do and does not take into account what other people say or do in the pursuit of that vision.
31. Must leaders undergo psychoanalysis under the psychodynamic approach?
One branch of psychodynamic theorizing is called psychohistory. It consists of attempts to explain the behavior of historical figures such as Abraham Lincoln and Hitler. These studies review the historical record of the leader and delve into the leader’s family background. Some basic ideas underlie the various psychodynamic approaches to leadership. One of those is the concept of the ego state, developed by Eric Berne (1961). It is part of a larger method called transactional analysis.

32. List the factors that contribute to the effectiveness of female leaders
v  Factors contributing to leadership effectiveness & rise of female leaders
§  Culture of many organizations is changing
§  Gendered work assumptions are being challenged
§  Organizations valuing flexible workers & diversity of top managers & leaders
§  Developing effective & supportive mentoring relationships
§  Greater negotiation power for women
§  Effectiveness and predominance of women owned businesses


33. List the universally desirable leadership attributes

34. What are the two broad domains where ethical theories fall?
v  There are Two Broad Domains: Theories about leaders’ conduct and about leaders’ character

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